درخت حوزه‌های تخصصی

Purpose- Rural women’s cooperatives play a crucial role in improving livelihoods, fostering economic independence, and empowering women in rural communities. However; these cooperatives face multiple challenges that can affect their performance and sustainability. Accordingly, this study seeks to assess the feasibility of establishing a women's cooperative and to analyze the challenges facing rural women's cooperatives in Dizajabad rural. Design/methodology/approach- This research is applied in purpose and employs both quantitative and qualitative paradigms. The statistical population in the quantitative section consisted of women in Dizajabad rural. In contrast, the qualitative section included women participating in business training courses and experts from the Zanjan Province Cooperative Office. The sample size in the quantitative part was determined as 292 using Cochran's formula. Data collection tools included a researcher-made questionnaire and interviews, with the questionnaire’s reliability confirmed by a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.78. Data analysis employed a one-sample t-test for the quantitative section and grounded theory for the qualitative section. Qualitative data were gathered through direct observation and semi-structured interviews, then analysed using open, axial, and selective coding. Findings- Results of the one-sample t-test indicated that socio-cultural factors provide favorable conditions for the formation of women’s cooperatives, while economic indicators were not evaluated as favorable. Furthermore, qualitative findings revealed 18 initial concepts from interviews regarding challenges to cooperative formation, categorised into four dimensions: policy-making, social, economic, and individual. Key barriers included weak legislation, poor planning, lack of investment and financial support, weak local management, insufficient supervision, lack of coordination among institutions, existence of parallel organisations, inadequate facilities, insecurity in the business environment, low risk-taking, weak individual capabilities, limited technical knowledge, poor market awareness, lack of education and training, and delinquency. Originality/Value- Rural women’s cooperatives, by creating employment opportunities, enhancing specialised skills, and strengthening individual and collective capacities, play a significant role in the economic and social empowerment of women. By increasing women’s active participation in production and decision-making processes, these institutions contribute to improved household livelihoods, sustainable development, and the strengthening of human capital in rural communities.

Purpose- Increasing economic pressures, environmental degradation, and public health challenges in urban areas have been identified as key drivers motivating individuals to return to rural regions. This study examines the influence of economic, socio-cultural, environmental, and spatial factors on return migration to rural areas, focusing on Bandar Khamir County in Iran as a case study. Design/methodology/approach- This study employed a descriptive-analytical approach and a quantitative method. The statistical population included Bandar Khamir residents, and a sample of 300 people was selected using a simple random sampling method. A researcher-developed Return Migration Questionnaire was utilised to examine the research variables. This questionnaire was designed to cover four factors: economic, social-cultural, environmental, and spatial factors. Several professors and experts verified the face validity of this scale, and its reliability was assessed using Cronbach's alpha, which produced a coefficient of 0.90. This is regarded as a highly satisfactory value for the questionnaire. The study utilized LISREL for structural analysis to verify the measurement model's validity, and SPSS for statistical processing. Specifically, the Chi-square test was calculated using SPSS version 23. Findings- The results showed that economic, socio-cultural, environmental, and spatial factors all have a positive and statistically significant effect on return migration. Economic factors had the strongest impact (β = 0.929; R² = 0.863), explaining 86.3% of the variance in return migration. Environmental (β = 0.923; R² = 0.852) and socio-cultural factors (β = 0.907; R² = 0.822) also demonstrated strong explanatory power, while spatial factors showed a comparatively lower but still significant effect (β = 0.805; R² = 0.648). Chi-square test results confirmed all four hypotheses at p < 0.001 (df = 299). Economic factors had the highest association with return migration (χ² = 172.534), followed by spatial (χ² = 118.421), environmental (χ² = 97.842), and socio-cultural factors (χ² = 83.327). Overall, the findings indicate that all four dimensions significantly influence return migration behavior, with economic determinants playing the most prominent role. Research limitations/implications - The study relied exclusively on a self-report questionnaire as the sole instrument for data collection. Participant selection was limited to migrants, meaning the findings reflect only this specific group's perceptions rather than a multi-stakeholder perspective. Practical implications - The results of this study have a significant impact on the development of public policies related to return migration. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that return migration to Bandar Khamir is driven by a complex set of issues, influenced by economic, social-cultural, environmental and spatial factors. Return migration represents a viable strategy for rural revitalization and balanced regional development. The findings suggest that addressing urban crises requires investing in rural alternatives. 

Trade law is no longer just a tool for regulating markets. It has become a powerful instrument of geopolitical influence. In today’s global environment, legal decisions involving trade agreements, regional partnerships, and economic sanctions often produce ripple effects that influence international alliances and trigger conflicts. This article examines how trade law contributes to both cooperation and tension in the global system. It draws on key examples such as the transformation of the European Union from an economic to a political union, the strategic development of CPTPP and RCEP in the Asia-Pacific, and the formation of negotiating coalitions within the World Trade Organization. These examples show how legal trade frameworks help build lasting international partnerships. The article also explores how trade law has been used to escalate disputes, including the United States and China trade conflict, the economic sanctions imposed on Russia, the trade consequences of the United Kingdom’s withdrawal from the European Union, and the global divide over the TRIPS waiver proposal during the COVID-19 crisis. These cases illustrate how trade law can shape global outcomes far beyond commerce. The article concludes by emphasizing the need to better understand the political role of trade law and to prepare for the wide-ranging effects that may result from its use in a rapidly changing global order.