درخت حوزه‌های تخصصی

Background and Theoretical Foundations: Lakes are among the most important natural habitats, life-giving systems, and productive environments in the world. They have always been exposed to threats, destruction, and dangers throughout human history. As one of the most important international lakes, this lake has faced serious threats due to factors such as water level reduction, pollution, climate change, and human pressures. Methods: The present study, using the descriptive-analytical method, deals with the approach of international environmental law regarding the responsibility or non-responsibility of the Iranian government for the drying up of Lake Urmia. Findings:  Lake Urmia, one of the largest salt lakes in the world, is rapidly losing water and drying up. This environmental hazard has raised concerns about its consequences and impact on surrounding communities. Maintaining and improving the condition of Lake Urmia requires the cooperation of all related people and institutions. This includes governments, organizations, researchers, civil society, and the international community. Everyone should pay attention to this issue and take appropriate measures to maintain and improve the condition of Lake Urmia. All individuals and institutions need to understand that the drying up of Lake Urmia is a global issue and requires the cooperation of all relevant parties to combat it. Conclusion: By adopting appropriate measures and effective interaction, it is possible to realize a significant improvement in the condition of Lake Urmia. Based on the provisions of international conventions and environmental principles and the perspective of international organizations, governments have international responsibility in various environmental fields, including the protection and restoration of lakes. Governments are responsible for preserving natural resources such as water, soil, forests, and biological resources. Carrying out numerous development projects in the area of ​​Lake Urmia, such as the construction of the Shahid Kalantari highway and numerous reservoir dams on the rivers that supply water to the lake, disturbs the ecological and hydrodynamic balance of Lake Urmia and is considered contrary to the commitment to promote reasonable use in the framework of the Ramsar Convention. The inefficiency of environmental impact assessment systems, starting projects before presenting the results of environmental assessment, not publishing and notifying the results to the public, not using the best available technology, etc. has finally endangered the life of this valuable wetland more and more. Therefore, the government of Iran is responsible for the drying up of Lake Urmia and its environmental damage according to international conventions and is required to comply with environmental principles to preserve and improve the conditions of Lake Urmia. The government of Iran should formulate and implement appropriate policies and laws to prevent illegal exploitation, pollution, and sabotage of these resources.

Worker wages represent a critical dimension of labor rights, encompassing all forms of remuneration arising from employment contracts. Given the inherent power imbalance between employers and employees, there exists an ongoing concern that employers, driven by the desire to minimize operational costs, may offer unjust wages to workers. Consequently, various frameworks are employed across societies to establish minimum wage standards. Social security stands as a fundamental indicator of the welfare levels of workers and vulnerable populations, providing a vital criterion for evaluating public satisfaction with governance. This research employs library resources, alongside descriptive-analytical and comparative approaches, to examine the relevant laws and documents within the national legal frameworks of Iran and Canada, as well as pertinent international instruments. The findings, based on the study's hypotheses, suggest that the systems governing equality in rights within Iran and Canada, as well as in international documents, emphasize the right to receive insurance benefits and secure employment as foundational elements of equality rights. Furthermore, the domains of relief and support serve to enhance these foundational structures.

This article aims to address theoretical and practical issues arising from the author’s "lived experience" in dealing with the developments and intricacies of international arbitration, with a particular focus on experiences related to the Iran-United States Claims Tribunal. These discussions are presented in two parts. The first part consists of general observations that emphasize, on the one hand, the unique importance of the Tribunal in contributing to the maintenance of international peace and security through the peaceful resolution of disputes between two predominantly adversarial states. The Tribunal is referred to as a symbolic institution embodying the "ideal of arbitration for peace." On the other hand, this section highlights the hybrid and multifaceted nature of the Tribunal and its manifestations, noting that the Iran-United States Claims Tribunal is a multifunctional institution. It simultaneously serves as an international commercial arbitration tribunal, an international investment arbitration tribunal, a tribunal with jurisdiction over contractual disputes between two states, and a public international law tribunal. This multifaceted nature allows its awards to be examined from various perspectives. The second part primarily examines the Tribunal’s jurisprudence from the perspective of the interaction between distinct legal cultures involved in international arbitration and the mutual influence of their legal backgrounds on the arbitration process. This selection is made with consideration of the judicial issues prevalent in Iran and seeks to highlight the Tribunal’s unparalleled role in deepening the legal knowledge and practical skills of Iranian lawyers in dealing with international claims. In this regard, issues such as the non-requirement of power of attorney for legal representatives, the admissibility of written witness testimony (affidavit) by the parties, the submission of written witness testimony and oral testimony by individuals with a personal interest in the case or a master-servant relationship with the parties, the ability to cross-examine witnesses during hearings regarding the content and veracity of their testimony, and the standard applied by the Tribunal for meeting the burden of proof and the burden of production are all examined in light of the Tribunal’s various rulings.