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The late Pleistocene period witnessed significant shifts in human lifestyle and behaviour across various regions in the Old World, as indicated by prehistoric archaeological evidence. These shifts reflect a transition from hunting to a greater emphasis on activities related to gathering plants. Archaeological findings demonstrate the utilization of plants in diverse forms, including the emergence of Bedrock Ground Stone (BGS) at prehistoric sites. In the realm of archaeological research, these remains are deemed crucial man-made artefacts, shedding light on essential aspects such as nutrition, culture, vegetation, food processing, and the presence of medicinal and toxic substances within ancient human societies. Given the existing research gap and the paramount significance of these artefacts in archaeological and anthropological studies, the Diyarmehr Institute for Paleolithic Research, for the first time in Iran, has committed to undertaking comprehensive and scientific investigations of the BGS in the Nawadrwn valley in the  Kermanshah region. Owing to its geographical positioning and environmental abundance, the west-central Zagros range has historically attracted and served as a conducive habitat for diverse human groups across various epochs. This study represents a multi-disciplinary research endeavour focused on 24 bedrock groundstones (BGS) discovered in the Prehistoric Bawa Yawan rockshelters within Nawdarwan valley. Detailed morphological and geochemical analyses have unveiled their multifaceted utility, encompassing purposes such as herbal processing and extraction, and their use in three instances as stone lamps.

The relationship between Rome and Parthia is one of the most important issues in ancient history. Still, only some scholars, such as archaeologists, historians, and linguists, have written books and articles about this subject. Rome, Parthia, and the Politics of Peace, The Origins of War in the Ancient Middle East, by Jason M. Schlude, is a new book in this field.

In the second half of the fourth millennium BCE, a settlement was established at Shahr-i Sokhta in Sistan​​. Simultaneously, during this period, the Porto-Elamite horizon emerged in a large zone of the Near East, especially on the eastern part of the Iranian Plateau. During the first quarter of the third millennium BCE and the early urbanization phase, Shahr-i Sokhta, an early urban center, expanded largely, and many satellite sites developed around it. To obtain some information on the economic and cultural interactions between Shahr-i Sokhta and these peripheral settlements, Tepe Talebkhan has been chosen for excavations and further detailed studies. In the article, by using the materials found during the fifth season of excavations at Tepe Talebkhan, the focus was to shed more light on the main cultural characteristics of the site and its mutual ties with Shahr-i Sokhta. Ceramic data indicates that the settlement was founded at the end of Shahr-i Sokhta III period and continued through the entire posterior period i.e. Shahr-i Sokhta IV. The carbon 14 results also provided an absolute date for the settlement sequence between 2500 and 2300 BCE. 

This study aimed to identify and document archaeological sites within the catchment area of the Azaroud Dam and to prepare an archaeological map of the region. The primary research question was whether there is evidence of historical human settlements in the Azaroud Dam reservoir area and how environmental and geological factors have influenced the formation or absence of such settlements. The methodology was based on a field survey of the region. The results indicate that there is no evidence of historical human settlements within the Azaroud Dam reservoir area. Only scattered fragments of eroded pottery were found along the riverbanks, likely transported to the area by seasonal floods from upstream regions. Environmental and geological analyses also reveal that factors such as dense forest cover, steep slopes, difficult terrain, and annual torrential rainfall have created unfavorable conditions for the establishment of permanent or even temporary settlements in this area. However, these findings are limited to the reservoir area, and the possibility of human settlements in adjacent areas, particularly in upstream regions with gentler slopes and flatter terrain, cannot be ruled out. Despite this, the significant tourism potential of the studied area, both naturally and due to the construction of the Azaroud Dam, can play a prominent role in attracting investment and promoting sustainable development in the region.

Kuh-i Sukhteh in Omidiyeh, one of the most important but less-known areas in southwestern Iran, is between Omidiyeh and today’s Aghajari. This area was considered a part of the Asak region (one of Arjan environs). Active sources of fire plagued this area in ancient times due to its natural bed, and it was probably a place for the construction of shrines, including the Zoroastrian fire temple. This spatial feature was observed and written about by travelers and authors of the first and middle Islamic centuries. Historical texts refer to this area as a volcano, fire, fire temple, and fire altar. This research aims to compare the material presented by historical texts with archaeological data to locate the Asak fire temple. Conducting this research is necessary to complete the puzzle of the communication route between Ramhormoz and Arjan and identify the architectural structures related to the settlement and possible Zoroastrian shrines in this route. This research tries to answer this question: What is the connection between the Kuh-i Sukhteh area and Zoroastrian religious buildings in the Sasanian and the first Islamic centuries? Conclusion: Based on information from the historical and geographical texts of the first to middle Islamic centuries and archaeological data, including pottery and architectural remains, the Kuh-i Sukhteh in Omidiyeh is an adaptable place for the ancient fire temple of Asak. However, archaeological excavations seem necessary to document more architectural structures. The present study’s data result from authors’ survey studies and citation studies, and we have concluded by historical, descriptive analysis.

Fire held particular significance among Zoroastrian Iranians, possessing varying degrees of importance. There were three groups of fire associated with rituals. The most sacred of these was the fire of Bahram, known as the fire of the victorious king, which was to burn perpetually in the fire temples of Ādur Gušnasp, Ādur Farnbāg, and Ādur Burzēn-Mihr under all circumstances. The fire temple of Ādur Gušnasp is located in Takht-i Soleiman, Takab (Northwest of Iran), and Ādur Burzēn-Mihr is situated in the region of Rivand in Khorasan (Northeast of Iran). However, there is a discrepancy regarding the location of the fire of Ādur Farnbāg or the fire temple of the priests. Some researchers, orientalists, and many historical geographical documents have suggested the Karyan region of Fars, but conclusive evidence has not been provided. In the archaeological study of the Bardestān desert region and the Sasanian site of Koyu, a newly discovered seal bearing an inscription referring to the fire of Ādur Farnbāg has proposed a new hypothesis concerning the location of the state fire of Ādur Farnbāg. This paper will introduce the site and the newly found seal, and the reasons for proposing the Bardestān desert region as the location for the fire of Ādur Farnbāg will be discussed. This research was conducted through field surveys and comparative library studies, aiming to address one of the most significant questions in Sasanian archaeology regarding the location of the fire temple of Ādur Farnbāg.

The Islamic era tombstones of Shahsavar Cemetery in Izeh, southwestern Iran, reflect a rich tapestry of religious, cultural, and socio-economic values embedded in local Bakhtiari traditions. This study explores the typology and semiotics of 632 gravestones dating from the Zand, Qajar, and Pahlavi periods to the contemporary era. These gravestones, which range from simple slabs to sculpted lion figures and tiered, crenellated forms, serve as commemorative markers and visual expressions of identity, status, and belief. Utilizing a dual-method approach —historical document analysis and ethnoarchaeological fieldwork— this research categorizes the gravestones into five primary types: simple, tiered-crenellated, stone lion (bardshir), arched (mihrab-shaped), and anthropomorphic. The study reveals that the selection and design of tombstones were highly codified within the Bakhtiari tribal hierarchy, governed by symbolic traditions and cultural legitimacy. These forms also encode valor, piety, and transcendence, linking the deceased with tribal memory and spiritual continuity. The findings contribute to the broader understanding of funerary art in post-Islamic Iran.

Many archaeological remains from the Achaemenid empire have been found in various lands; therefore, many authors have researched and written about this empire’s cultural and civilizational features. Dahāneh-ye Qolāmān is one of the valuable sites of this empire that still stands. Dahāneh-ye Qolāmān is located 30 kilometers southeast of Zabol and was one of the important sites of the Achaemenids in southeastern Iran. The site was discovered in the 1960s by Italian archaeologist Umberto Scherato, who began archaeological excavations in 1962. Archaeological studies have shown that the structures of this city were built on a high terrace and were used in at least two periods of settlement. A look at the two different types of architectural structures, namely huge buildings and smaller buildings, indicates the various uses of these buildings. Among the large buildings, building number 3 was a large religious structure, building number 1 was a large civil building, and building number 2 was an administrative building. Buildings 4, 5, 6, and 7 were residential and private, all located in the eastern part of the city, and building 15 was an industrial building with religious production. Buildings numbers 16 and 17 were also large public buildings.

Duels, despite their cultural visibility and symbolic significance, were never a common nor universal form of conflict resolution. In the Iranian tradition, as presented in Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh, however, they hold a special place as an element of the hero’s ethos. This raises questions about the extent of the practice of such encounters and about their ritual, whether the fighting took place on foot or on horseback. The article addresses this issue in the context of pre-Islamic Iran, juxtaposing three perspectives: the narrative of Ferdowsi’s epic, historical accounts concerning rulers and commanders, and the iconography of reliefs. In the Shahnameh, mounted combat appears as the most prestigious form, yet the poet subtly challenges its superiority, pointing instead to victory as the true criterion of honor. The comparison of these three sources allows for a deeper understanding of the significance of duels in pre-Islamic Iranian tradition.

A newly discovered Elamite rock relief in the Alhak region of central Izeh in southwestern Iran contributes significantly to the corpus of commemorative Elamite art. Unlike other well-known reliefs from the area—such as those at Kūl-i Farah, Shahsavar, and Khung-i Azhdar—this composition was carved onto a conglomerate rock surface, a medium both unique and inherently fragile, leading to its accelerated erosion and delayed recognition. The relief depicts a male figure seated in profile on a simple throne, raising his right hand in a gesture of reverence or supplication. A stepped platform lies before him, while a prominent solar disc hovers above his head—features resonant with iconographic motifs found on contemporaneous cylinder seals from Elam and Mesopotamia. Iconographic and stylistic parallels suggest that the Alhak relief belongs to the Shimashki cultural horizon (ca. 2000–1970 BCE). The absence of divine attributes—such as horned crowns or zoomorphic insignia—indicates that the figure is more plausibly interpreted as a royal personage engaged in ritual devotion rather than a deity. The rightward orientation of the seated figure, in contrast to the left-facing postures of most Izeh reliefs, further underscores its distinctiveness. This discovery broadens our understanding of regional variability within Elamite rock art. It highlights the cultural resilience of Elamite traditions in the highlands following the collapse of lowland power centers such as Susa. Future investigations employing advanced imaging technologies (e.g., 3D scanning and photogrammetry) are essential for recovering lost details and refining our interpretation of the relief’s symbolic schema.

The Bayazid Bastami complex, located in Bastam, Semnan province, is considered one of the outstanding examples of the Iranian religious architecture during the Ilkhanid era. Due to the existence of a renowned Sufi’s shrine, Bayazid Bastami (161-234 AH), this complex has attracted the attention of different reigns and kings since the very early Islamic period, and numerous constructions have been performed in this monument during various periods from the Deylamiyān (Deylamites) dynasty to the Qajar period. Most of the constructions in this complex and also the restorations conducted here relate to the Ilkhanid era, and particularly to Sultan Muhammad Ghazan Khan’s reign (694-703 AH) and Sultan Mohammad Khodābandeh Öljaitü’s time (703-716 AH). Thanks to his high regard for Bayazid, Öljaitü even selected his own children’s names according to Bayazid’s name and titles: Bastam, Bayazid, and Ṭayfūr. In various Ilkhanid buildings and extensions in Bayazid Bastami’s complex, numerous inscriptions can be seen that have adorned the architectural elements of this complex. Due to the existence of multiple features and the religious importance of this part, inscriptions on the mihrab of this mosque, called Mardana or Bayazid, have been widely investigated and analyzed from different aspects, including ritual, artistic, and historical. In the present research, a descriptive-analytical methodology has been applied, and the data have been collected from documentary and field studies with a theoretical approach to study the cultural history.  

Examining administrative artefacts from the Proto-Elamite period in Susa through a phenomenological lens allows historians and archaeologists to contextualize these documents not only as dormant material culture but also as dynamic instruments in negotiating economic control, political authority, and institutional identity. This article draws on newly reevaluated evidence of clay sealing strips housed in the National Museum of Iran, interpreted initially as “wall sealings” by Holly Pittman. It reconsiders their function in light of comparative frameworks developed by Adelheid Otto for Middle Bronze Age Syria. By situating these items within the broader conceptual field of “administrative writing”, here extended to include physical sealing devices as protoarchival media, this study examines the thematic frameworks, authorial stances, and intended audiences embedded in both the ancient administrative practices and the modern scholarly discourse. Rather than occupying a marginal position in archaeological literature, these sealing strips emerge as powerful heuristic tools for understanding the evolution of bureaucratic management in early Iranian state formations.

Understanding the descriptions of graves and historical mortuary practices is crucial for interpreting contextual information and broader social significance. This study employs an interdisciplinary approach, drawing from archaeological literature, anthropological evidence, and sociological theory to expand the range of possible interpretations. The research is based on ethnoarchaeological research on the mourning ritual of the Bakhtiari people in southwest Iran. A ritual that exemplifies memorials is embodied in monuments called Mafegeh for individuals or groups whose remains are elsewhere. The conceptual framework encompasses the theoretical and methodological aspects of comparing ethnographic and archaeological data. This framework provides a comprehensive approach to effectively analyzing and drawing connections between these two data types. Fieldwork involves conducting archaeological surveys, interviews, and direct ethnographic observations to document the Mafegeh. The study shows theoretical considerations and emphasises the reluctance to forget the dead. Nonreligious beliefs and mental states underlie many motivations of this practice. It may be that mafageh is driven by other symbolic, emotional, and practical reasons, and that has little to do with a belief in immortal souls. Such historically and culturally recurring funerary practices suggest that humans are predisposed to believe in and prepare for an afterlife. A possible reason would have been that the deceased had died elsewhere; thus, the memorial structure was erected to honour him. The research exclusively involves men, and no instances related to women were found.

Drawing on Manichaean Middle Iranian texts and adopting a textual approach, the present article tries to define the meaning and usage of some technical terms (termini tecnichi) in Manichaean theology, especially the words “angel” (frystg, fryštg) and “apostle, messenger” (frystg, fryštg). The use of a word for two meanings and/ or two concepts in the Manichaica was a result of the redefinition that each of the different Manichaean communities presented for the concepts of ‘angel’ and ‘apostle, messenger’. The article shows that the Iranian term frys/štg has been redefined and expanded in meaning in Manichaean literature under the influence of Syriac writings; a redefinition that could generate an angel from an apostle / a messenger and a king from the angel. Here, we also examined the technical terms xwdʾy/ xwdʾwn ‘lord’, by / bg ‘god’, yzd ‘god’ and bgpwhr / βγpšy / βγpšʾk ‘son of God’ (βγpwryšt / βγpšyt ‘the sons of God’) βγpwr(ʾ)yc ‘daughter of God’ showing the contexts in which these terms appear and what examples they refer to. Our study shows that some of them were used not only for angels and historical figures (like Mani and Manichaean leaders and electi, as well as previous apostles), but also included at least one of Manichaean gods, i.e. ‘Third Messenger’.

The topic of Iranian identity is one that many are willing to recognize, while only a minority choose to reject it. The author of the book in question belongs to the latter group. The title suggests that the author intends to challenge both Iran and the historical foundations of Iranian and national identity. Influenced by contemporary theoretical discussions that overlook the historical and cultural contexts of the nations being examined, he tends to regard Iran and its national identity as constructs devised by Orientalists. He does not acknowledge the historical importance and development of the term "Iran" itself. The author of the book Iran as Imagined Nation: The Construction of National Identity, who draws inspiration from Edward Said's Orientalism and Benedict Anderson's Imagined Communities, contends that both Iranian and non-Iranian authors view Iranian and national identity as a historical phenomenon. These authors, influenced by racial and ideological perspectives and western methodologies, have narrated history in a way that is both ahistorical and misleading, replacing genuine historical events with fabricated stories. This article does not critique every chapter of the book Iran as Imagined Nation: The Construction of National Identity. Instead, it will concentrate on chapters that present weak or incorrect claims regarding Iran's historical roots, its attributes, and its ethnic and linguistic diversity, with the aim of clarifying and illuminating these issues.

This study focuses on the intellectual journeys of Allama Iqbal and Ahmet Mithat by  concentrating on the significant changes in their thought and philosophy following their travels  to Europe. Allama Iqbal (1877-1938), a prominent philosopher-poet from undivided India, and  the famous Ottoman writer Ahmet Mithat Efendi (1844-1912), represent important figures in  Turkey's intellectual world. Their journeys to Europe, a prime example of encounter with modern  ideas and political currents, marked a transformative period in their lives and profoundly  influenced their subsequent literary and philosophical works.  The aim of this study is to conduct an in-depth comparative analysis of their writings before and  after their residence in Europe. It seeks to uncover how exposure to Europe's socio-political and  intellectual climate triggered a shift in their perspectives on culture, religion, and politics. This  research will utilize primary sources such as personal diaries, letters, and literary works,  alongside secondary analyses, to construct a comprehensive picture of their evolving ideologies.  This research is not only about tracing the intellectual metamorphosis of these two figures but  also about understanding the broader implications of such transformations within the context of  Islamic renaissance and modern thought. By analyzing the intercultural exchange and the  resulting intellectual fermentation, it aims to make a significant contribution to the discourse on  how cross-cultural experiences shape philosophical and ideological narratives. This study, by  offering a nuanced understanding of the legacy and lasting impact of Iqbal and Mithat Efendi's  European experience, seeks to build a bridge between historical understandings and  contemporary interest. ****   Bu araşdırma Məhəmməd İqbal və Əhməd Mithatın Avropa səyahətlərindən sonra fikir və  fəlsəfələrində baş verən mühüm dəyişikliklərə diqqət yetirərək onların intellektual səyahətlərini  təhlil edir. Bölünməmiş Hindistanın görkəmli filosof-şairlərindən olan Məhəmməd İqbal (1877 1938) və məşhur Osmanlı yazıçısı Əhməd Mithat Əfəndi (1844-1912) Türkiyənin intellektual  dünyasının mühüm simvolarındandırlar. Müasir fikirlər və siyasi axınlarla qarşılaşmanın  əlamətdar bir nümunəsi olan Avropa səfərləri onların həyatında transformativ bir dövr açmış və  sonrakı ədəbi və fəlsəfi əsərlərini dərin şəkildə təsirləndirmişdir.  Bu tədqiqatın məqsədi onların Avropada qalmalarından əvvəl və sonra yazdıqlarının dərindən  müqayisəli təhlilini aparmaqdır. Avropanın sosio-politik və intellektual mühitinə məruz qalmağın  onların mədəniyyət, din və siyasətə baxışlarında necə dəyişikliklərə səbəb olduğunu ortaya  çıxarmağı hədəfləyir. Bu araşdırma şəxsi gündəliklər, məktublar və ədəbi əsərlər kimi birinci  dərəcəli mənbələrin yanında ikinci dərəcəli təhlillərdən də istifadə edərək, onların inkişaf edən  ideologiyalarının hərtərəfli bir şəklini quracaqdır.  Bu tədqiqat təkcə bu iki şəxsin intellektual çevrilişinin izini verməklə kifayətlənmir, həm də belə  dəyişikliklərin İslam intibahı və müasir düşüncə kontekstindəki daha geniş nəticələrini başa  düşməklə məşğul olur. Mədəniyyətlərarası mübadiləni və nəticədə ortaya çıxan intellektual  mayalanmanı təhlil edərək, təcrübələrin fəlsəfi və ideoloji hekayələri necə formalaşdırdığı  mövzusundakı diskurslara mühüm bir töhfə verməyi məqsəd qoyur. İqbal və Mithat Əfəndinin  Avropa təcrübəsinin irsini və davamlı təsirini incə bir şəkildə anlayaraq, tarixi anlayışlarla müasir  maraq arasında körpü qurmağa çalışır. ****   Bu araştırma, Muhammed İkbal ve Ahmet Mithat’ın Avrupa seyahatlerinin ardından düşünce  ve felsefelerinde yaşanan önemli değişimlere odaklanarak entelektüel yolculuklarını ele alıyor.  Bölünmemiş Hindistan’ın önde gelen filozof-şairlerinden Muhammed İkbal (1877-1938) ve  ünlü Osmanlı yazarı Ahmet Mithat Efendi (1844-1912), Türkiye’nin entelektüel dünyasının  önemli isimlerini temsil ediyor. Modern fikirlerin ve siyasi akımların önemli bir örneği olan  Avrupa’ya yolculukları, hayatlarında dönüştürücü bir döneme işaret etmiş ve daha sonraki edebi  ve felsefi çalışmalarını derinden etkilemiştir.  Bu çalışmanın amacı onların Avrupa’daki ikametlerinden önce ve sonra yazdıklarının  derinlemesine karşılaştırmalı bir analizini yapmaktır. Avrupa’nın sosyo-politik ve entelektüel  iklimine maruz kalmanın kültür, din ve siyasete bakış açılarında nasıl bir değişimi tetiklediğini  ortaya çıkarmayı amaçlıyor. Bu araştırma, gelişen ideolojilerinin kapsamlı bir resmini  oluşturmak için ikincil analizlerin yanı sıra kişisel günlükler, mektuplar ve edebi eserler gibi  birincil kaynaklardan yararlanacaktır.  Bu araştırma, yalnızca bu iki figürün entelektüel başkalaşımının izini sürmekle ilgili değil, aynı  zamanda bu tür değişimlerin İslami rönesans ve modern düşünce bağlamındaki daha geniş  sonuçlarını anlamakla da ilgilidir. Kültürlerarası alışverişi ve bunun sonucunda ortaya çıkan  entelektüel mayalanmayı analiz ederek, deneyimlerin felsefi ve ideolojik anlatıları nasıl  şekillendirdiği konusundaki söylemlere önemli katkı sağlamayı amaçlamaktadır. Bu araştırma,  İkbal ve Mithat Efendi'nin Avrupa deneyimlerinin mirasına ve kalıcı etkisine ilişkin incelikli  bir anlayış sunarak, tarihsel anlayışlarla çağdaş ilgi arasında köprü kurmaya çalışmaktadır.