مطالب

The article  examines the requirements of the theory of moral virtue ethics among Islamic philosophers — such as al-Farabi, Khwaja Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, and Ibn Sina — in the domain of political and legal theories is considered essential for the social extension of Islamic philosophy. This endeavor, however, necessitates a coherent examination of the concepts of virtue ethics across the three domains: moral, political, and legal theories, as a unified normative theory — something that has not yet received adequate scholarly attention. In this research, we aim to focus on the foundations of philosophical virtue ethics in Mulla Sadra’s philosophy provides a basis for moral philosophy, political philosophy, and philosophy of law, in order to outline his general principles as the foundations of a coherent normative moral-political-legal school of thought. It appears that within the system of Sadraean Transcendent Wisdom (Hikmat al-Muta'aliya), moral philosophy — understood as fundamental values grounded in anthropological concepts such as happiness (sa'ada), virtue (fadila), and justice ('adala) — serves as a basis for deriving political foundations such as the virtuous city (al-Madina al-Fadila), the promotion of virtues, the avoidance of vices, and ultimately the regulation of foundational legal concepts such as the expansion of goods, the removal of evils, and the protection of lives and property. The aforementioned rules and foundations are organized and framed in coherence with fundamental anthropological values. According to the findings of the present research, these foundations possess the capacity to formulate a moral-political-legal theory of virtue ethics in accordance with Mulla Sadra's particular version of this tradition.

Environmental crimes have emerged among the foremost international challenges, with states assuming a decisive role in their emergence, perpetuation, and deterrence. While governments bear a statutory duty duty to protect the environment, developmental policies and regulatory decisions may, directly or indirectly, facilitate the proliferation of such crimes. This study conducts a comparative analysis of the criminal liability of state for environmental crimes within the legal systems of Iran and France. The central research question is: To what extent can states be held criminally liable for environmental crimes, and what principal distinctions characterize the approaches of these two legal systems? The operative hypothesis posits that in Iran, state liability remains predominantly confined to administrative and civil spheres due to insufficient criminalization, whereas France has developed a more coherent juridical framework acknowledging the potential criminal liability of public legal persons. Methodologically, the study adopts a descriptive-analytical approach, utilizing library and documentary resources, within a comparative criminal law framework informed by theories of corporate criminal liability. The findings indicate that reforms within French criminal law, particularly within specialized environmental statutes and the Penal Code, enable the prosecution of public institutions and, under certain circumstances, state entities for environmental violations. French jurisprudence has further elaborated the doctrine of corporate criminal liability to enhance environmental protection. Conversely, the Iranian system remains principally oriented toward civil and administrative remedies, hampered by deficient enforcement regimes and substantial legal ambiguities regarding the recognition of the state as a a subject of criminal liability. This study concludes that Iran necessitates a revision of its legislative framework, incorporating insights from the French experiences, to reinforce its criminal policy for effective environmental protection.