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In spite of ancient and serious disagreements, Iran and Iraq did not go to war until 1980. Why? What changed the equation? Three-plus decades later, Iran is still a main actor in Iraq’s internal affairs. What motivates this involvement? Our main objective is to explore the politics of the Iraq–Iran conflict and attending influence of Western powers from 1980 onwards. In this study, we analyse the history and causal factors in light of Western foreign policies, and seek grounds for bilateral rapprochement and note cooperation between Western powers, proposing that if the West can cooperate to achieve respective national interests, so can Iran and Iraq. Coherent policy landscaping characterizes national and international levels on looking at theoretical global governance, but academia has yet to pay attention to extant actors and institutions required to govern energy concerns. A classical realist approach reveals that Western Powers pursued and continue to pursue respective interests at all costs. How their several interventions have affected the Iran–Iraq conflict has thus far remained undisclosed

One of the most important factors in maintaining a nation's unity and integrity is national identity. If national identity is defined as a sense of belonging to a country whose citizens share a common language, land, cultural heritage, customs, emotions, memories, political system, beliefs, symbols, national heroes, history, economics, art and literature, and even religion, then this sense of belonging can be a source of national solidarity and unity. Governments all over the world take advantage of educational content at different educational levels to promote a common national identity among children and adolescents in order to maintain the existence and integrity of their own country. Based on national identity elements in the formal education of primary schools in Belgium, this study aimed to analyze the answers of Belgian primary school teachers and principals to a 25-item questionnaire (sent to 3,140 primary schools in three languages of English, French, and Dutch). The results of analyzing the survey results based on national identity elements contained in the educational content of primary schools indicated that the Belgian primary school teachers and principals seek to build a common national identity based on the constituents of Belgian nationality, even if they do not admit it verbally. Also Belgian government demonstrates that not only is not indifferent to national identity but it adopts programs and strategies to consolidate the national identity and build a unified nation based on Belgian values. This study employed desk studies, qualitative content analysis, and field studies to analyze the data obtained from questionnaires and direct observations.

As a developing Southeast Asian state, Malaysia actively engages in Regional Trade Agreements (RTAs), such as ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA), Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP), and ASEAN-China Free Trade Area (ACFTA), to pursue economic and geopolitical goals. However, these agreements present challenges due to legal complexities, geopolitical dynamics, and economic consequences. This research explores  As a developing Southeast Asian state, Malaysia actively engages in Regional Trade Agreements (RTAs), such as ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA), Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP), and ASEAN-China Free Trade Area (ACFTA), to pursue economic and geopolitical goals. However, these agreements present challenges due to legal complexities, geopolitical dynamics, and economic consequences. This research explores Malaysia's strategic involvement in RTAs, focusing on their development, legal frameworks, geopolitical implications, and economic impacts. This study utilizes a doctrinal legal research methodology to analyze primary and secondary sources, including legal documents, treaties, and scholarly publications, with the goal of uncovering significant themes, recurring patterns, and deeper insights. The findings indicate that although Malaysia participates in regional trade agreements (RTAs) to bolster economic resilience and foster regional integration, their effective management is challenged by constantly evolving geopolitical dynamics and uncertainties. This study contributes to ongoing discussions on regionalism and multilateralism within the global trade system.

The regionalisation of international trade rules represents a significant evolution in the global trading system, characterized by the increasing prevalence of regional trading agreements (RTAs) alongside multilateral frameworks like the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). These arrangements aim to enhance trade relations and reduce barriers within specific regions, reflecting localized approaches to trade liberalization. Different regional trade agreements may have conflicting rules and standards, leading to a fragmented global trading system. This can create barriers for countries outside these agreements, making it harder for them to access markets. This paper aims to explore the regionalisation of international trade rules, examining the development and impact of various regional trading arrangements (RTAs) within the framework of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). A doctrinal method is used in articles which discuss the regionalization of international trade rules and the impact of various regional trading arrangements (RTAs) within the framework of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The research found that the increase in regionalization of international trade rules has transformed the global trade landscape. Despite their benefit, the interconnectedness of numerous trade agreements can lead to complexity and inefficiencies that can weaken the multilateral trading system.

This paper argues that Iran needs to review and reform its press legal regime with much greater consideration for new technologies in today’s information society arena. A free press is one of the few, and possibly the only, means to force the government to be held accountable for its actions. The history of press law in the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) dates back to the creation of the first legislation (1930) in this country. Today, with the innovative advances in communication and the needs of “netizens” (a term for citizens who use networks for communication), the IRI Press Law does not have sufficient flexibility with international documents or reflect the impact of new technologies regarding the freedom of expression. Therefore, many of the questions in this era remain unanswered

Futurology is an interdisciplinary field of research that predicts and presents possible futures using diverse methods. Also, Security is the most famous concept in human history and the pursuit of a secure state has been the first choice of political units throughout history. Accordingly, the futurology of the security of Iran is the main topic of this article, which tries to present the secure state and possible and optimal scenarios for the security of Iran in the twenty-year vision. In other words, the objective of this article is to identify the geopolitical criteria affecting the security of Iran and to introduce its desirable security future with a futuristic approach in the twenty-year vision. This article is fundamental research that uses quantitative and qualitative models. First, with the help of existing studies in security, its criteria are classified into six groups: military, economic, geographical, cultural, political, and environmental. Second, the effective criteria for the security of Iran are presented, and third, the opinions of experts are collected through a questionnaire. The data and key criteria for optimal security of Iran in the new century were analyzed and extracted by the TOPSIS method. The results showed that the three criteria of ‘Strengthen infrastructure’, ‘Impacts of Climate Change’, and ‘Increasing military capabilities' are the key geopolitical criteria of the security for Iran. These three criteria create eight security scenarios. Finally, the scenario of ‘strengthen multidimensional infrastructure, adapt to climate change, and increase hardware military capabilities’ with a higher score, should be the criterion for formulating the roposed security perspective of Iran in the new century.

For years, World Trade Organization (WTO) Members avoided invoking the security exception, leaving unresolved tensions between its self-judging nature and the compulsory jurisdiction of WTO panels. However, in 2017 and 2018, several panels were established after respondents justified measures as essential for national security. The rise in economic sanctions has heightened the importance of WTO security exceptions, which permit otherwise WTO-inconsistent measures like discriminatory tariffs. The broad scope of the national security exception in Article XXI of the GATT poses challenges due to potential abuse. Through a detailed analysis of the legal framework and standards of proof, this article explores the limits of this exception and proposes reforms to balance national security and free trade. It finds that while necessary, the exception's misuse of protectionism threatens global trade stability. The study calls for more explicit guidelines, transparency, and robust dispute resolution to prevent abuse

In modern geopolitics economic warfare has become more and more significant. This paper examines a special segment of economic warfare: can oil price be manipulated and serve as an effective geopolitical (or geoeconomic) weapon, and if that is the case, under what conditions? This article demonstrates that the United States and its allies (mainly Saudi Arabia)—when certain economic, technological, and political conditions are fulfilled—may be able to achieve a considerable and lasting decline in oil prices to restrain the military/geopolitical activities of the Soviet Union/Russia that are deemed overly excessive. This paper analyses the relationship between the oil market and geopolitics in the last decade of the Cold War, when the oil price fell sharply contributing to the collapse of the Soviet economic and political system. Research results may prove useful in forming the geopolitical/geoeconomic strategy of superpowers, and it may be applied to forecast oil price fluctuations too.

ASEAN's active participation as a third party in the World Trade Organization (WTO) Dispute Settlement Mechanism (DSM) preserves its economic interests while strengthening regional cohesion and cooperation. However, challenges such as limited resources, diverse national interests, and lack of legal competence remain. This paper examines the benefit and challenges of ASEAN’s participation as third parties in the WTO through qualitative document analysis and critical case studies. It underscores the need for third-party involvement in enhancing WTO DSM, boosting transparency, and contemplating broader global trade effects. The study proposes capacity-building efforts, improved intra-ASEAN cooperation, and partnerships with other WTO members and international organizations. As ASEAN's economic integration and global trade, activity grows, so will its role in the WTO DSM, underlining the importance of strategic and collaborative engagement in international trade law and policy. 

The relationship between international disputes and international trade is a complex and crucial field of research. Conflicts at the international platform can cause geopolitical instability, thus it affects global trade. Comprehending the impact of political dynamics on trade contacts is essential for maintaining global economic stability. This study investigates the impact of political ties on the volume of bilateral trade, suggesting that positive political relationships increase trade, while negative ones decrease it. Using utility theory, we examine the common ideas held by customers and trade corporations. This theory examines the factors that influence the decision making of individuals which later can provide understanding and insights into the potential consequences of political conflicts on global trade. As a result, it has a big effect on how importers and exporters interact with each other. Our study utilises empirical analysis of monthly trade data to investigate the influence of oscillations in commerce on political ties between nations. Our research suggests that when political relationships deteriorate, it results in enduring alterations in trade patterns, but fluctuations in commerce have little long-term impacts on political relations. This research offers valuable insights into the correlation between political conflict resolution and the stabilisation and promotion of international trade.