incidental learning

The study aimed at investigating whether the retention of vocabulary acquired incidentally is dependent upon the amount of task-induced involvement. Immediate and delayed retention of twenty unfamiliar words was examined in three learning tasks( listening comprehension + group discussion, listening comprehension + dictionary checking + summary writing in L1, and listening comprehension + dictionary checking + sentence writing with the target words) inducing differential ‘involvement loads’- consisting of varying degrees of need, search and evaluation. Time-on-task was kept constant among all three tasks. The results partially supported the Involvement Load Hypothesis: The sentence writing task generated the highest retention rate, a finding which is quite in harmony with the Hypothesis’s prediction. However, the other two tasks did not result in different retention rates despite equal involvement loads. These results are discussed with reference to the involvement load hypothesis and some suggestions are made as to how to improve and revise the original theory.

The use of digital games has increased dramatically in the last two decades due to the augmentation in the number of Personal Computers (PCs) and mobile devices worldwide. Not only can digital games be played for entertainment, but also, they may have both positive and negative effects on their players. Various effects of digital games on individuals’ levels of attention span, concentration, and addiction have already been tested by numerous studies; however, their impact on incidental Second Language (L2) acquisition is still untouched by language researchers. To address this lacuna, this is a longitudinal observational study that lasted for three months to investigate the impact of digital games played by young learners for entertainment at home on their unintentional acquisition of English as an L2. The age of the participants ranged from 8 to 14 years old, and the experiment was conducted during the Covid-19 pandemic in 2021. Three main games were played by the sample; namely, Free Fire, Minecraft, and Among Us. The findings revealed that digital gaming significantly influenced the vocabulary development of the participants, and gaming was a clear asset for their L2 acquisition. It was also found that the players’ level of vocabulary retention was high; however, two drawbacks were identified in this regard, namely, the prolonged screen time and vocabulary items specifically related to a given area of a particular game. Overall, this study can be an impetus for further research into evaluating the benefits or drawbacks of using digital games for specific aspects of L2 acquisition such as the development of cognitive abilities or enhanced understanding. 

Background: While vocabulary acquisition models have been widely studied, the comparative role of Laufer’s frameworks in digital environments—particularly their effects on learner engagement and perception—remains underexplored. This research addresses this gap by examining how these models mediate vocabulary learning outcomes among Iranian EFL learners. Aims: This study aimed to investigate the impact of Laufer’s Three "I" model (Input, Instruction, Involvement) and the extended Five "I" model (adding Interaction and Interpretation) on Iranian EFL learners' deliberate and incidental vocabulary learning engagement in digital contexts. Methods: The study employed a sequential mixed-methods design with 93 intermediate-level male EFL learners (aged 16–20) selected via convenience sampling from private language institutes in Tehran. After homogeneity screening using the Oxford Quick Placement Test (OQPT), 60 participants were randomly assigned to experimental (digital-based instruction) and control (traditional face-to-face) groups. Data were collected through vocabulary tests, engagement surveys, and semi-structured interviews, analyzed using SPSS (v.26) for quantitative data (ANOVA, t-tests) and thematic analysis for qualitative responses. Results: Results indicated that the Five "I" model significantly outperformed the Three "I" model in both deliberate (p< 0.05, d= 0.85) and incidental (p< 0.05, d= 0.72) vocabulary learning. Qualitative data revealed enhanced engagement, reduced anxiety, and improved metacognitive awareness among learners using the progressive model, particularly through its Interaction and Interpretation components. Conclusion: The findings suggest that Laufer’s expanded Five "I" model offers a more effective framework for digital vocabulary instruction by integrating social-interactive and interpretive elements. Educators should prioritize structured yet interactive digital activities to maximize lexical acquisition and learner motivation in EFL contexts.