learning difficulties

The process of foreign language syntactic development regarding learners’ L1 literacy level is different among adult learners. Many studies have shown that illiterate and low-literate learners follow the same path in the L2 morphosyntax development despite their L1 literacy level. However, little research has been carried out to focus on differences in the new language literacy development among learners with varying first language proficiency. Therefore, the current study was carried out to investigate the differences in learning English adjectival and prepositional phrases among three Kurdish adult groups of literate, low-literate, and illiterate learners in one term. Additionally, it probed the major difficulties they faced through the English phrase acquisition process. Mixed methods were used for data collection including observations of the classes supplemented by audio recording and English phrase tests. Through the application of three tests of recognition, matching, and multiple-choice type, the outcome knowledge of adjectival and prepositional phrases was assessed and compared among groups. The obtained data were analyzed through the Kruskal-Wallis test. Some tangible results were detected from tests that did not ascribe the differences in learning English absolutely to background schooling and literacy. In fact, they showed that there were significant differences among groups in matching and multiple-choice type post-tests, while there were no considerable differences in recognition-type post-test. Furthermore, results also revealed that illiterate and low-literate learners encountered further complicated difficulties and made an unusual combination of pronunciation and grammatical errors in their production.

Objective: The study aimed to compare the effectiveness of attachment-based play therapy and parent-child relationship-based play therapy on internalizing and externalizing behavioral disorders in children with learning disabilities. Methods: This quasi-experimental study employed a pre-test, post-test, and follow-up design with a control group. A total of 45 children with learning disabilities were selected through purposive sampling and randomly assigned to three groups: attachment-based play therapy, parent-child relationship-based play therapy, and a control group. The study used the Achenbach and Rescorla (2001) Behavioral Disorders Questionnaire to measure internalizing and externalizing behaviors at each stage. Both experimental groups received nine 60-minute therapy sessions. Data were analyzed using repeated measures ANOVA and ANCOVA to compare the effectiveness of the interventions. Findings: The findings indicated that both attachment-based play therapy and parent-child relationship-based play therapy significantly reduced internalizing and externalizing behavioral disorders in children with learning disabilities, with large effect sizes (η² = 0.864 and η² = 0.773, respectively). Repeated measures ANOVA and ANCOVA confirmed the interventions' effectiveness (p < 0.001), and Bonferroni post-hoc tests revealed significant differences between the experimental groups and the control group, but no significant differences between the two experimental groups. The positive effects were sustained over time, demonstrating the long-term efficacy of both therapeutic approaches. Conclusion: Both attachment-based play therapy and parent-child relationship-based play therapy effectively reduce internalizing and externalizing disorders in children with learning disabilities, with lasting effects over time.