Spirit

Since old times the two dimensionalities of human beings, i.e., their having a material body and an immaterial soul (spirit), has been a controversial problem. In the Abrahamic religions, the human soul is considered to be immaterial and in interaction with the body. Furthermore, it is considered to be a special effusion of God to each individual human being. During the modern times, with the dominance of empiricism, the prevalent view considers human soul a byproduct of matter. In fact, from the naturalistic viewpoint of modern science, there is no place for mind or consciousness as a novel and immaterial subject, but there are some important ideas about this subject, and some eminent scientists of our time believe that the human soul is immaterial and is never explainable by science. Among the latter group, there are some celebrated scientists who believe that human soul is God’s special effusion to human beings. In this article, we mention and analyze some of these important ideas.

The purpose of this study is to implement a comparative approach to investigate the interplay between religion and the rise of capitalism through the perspectives of Max Weber and Werner Sombart. By contextualizing their positions within the intellectual debates of their time, this study highlights their respective inclinations towards the Austrian School and the German Historical School. Weber's Neo-Kantian influences and Sombart's Hegelian roots further deepen the philosophical and epistemological divide between them. In the next step, the methodology and theories regarding the spirit of modern capitalism, religious motivation, and the future of capitalism are reflected. Weber's work, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, posits that Protestant ethics played a crucial role in the development of modern capitalism, emphasizing rationalization and ethical discipline. In contrast, Sombart's works, including Der Moderne Kapitalismus and Jews and Modern Economic Life, argue for a broader array of influences, integrating psychological, social, and cultural factors in shaping capitalist behavior and especially emphasizing the role of Judaism. The research underscores their contrasting views: Weber sees capitalism and Protestant ethics as singular phenomena with an elective affinity, while Sombart views capitalism as the manifestation of a modern capitalist spirit (Geist) influencing psychological incentives and broader social needs.