حسین کرامت فر

This paper examines the traditional and materialist conceptions of subjectivity, as portrayed in Shakespeare’s Richard II . The traditional view theorizes a human subject with a unified, coherent, and unchanging core, independent of its historical and social contexts, and characterized by self-determination. In contrast, materialist thought, as articulated by thinkers like Dollimore, rejects the notion of a fixed, essential self and emphasizes the constructed and contingent nature of identity. This perspective views identity as shaped by social, political, and ideological forces, and as inherently fluid and other-determined. The paper applies this theoretical framework to the character of Richard, who embodies the traditional view of a divinely ordained, autonomous king. Richard's inability to recognize the constructed nature of his identity leads to his political downfall and personal disintegration. Conversely, Bolingbroke, who succeeds Richard, demonstrates a keen awareness of the contingent and relational aspects of identity and emphasizes the importance of social and political legitimation. The examination of Richard II highlights the shift from a medieval, essentialist understanding of identity to a Renaissance, materialist one, underscoring the political and ideological implications of these differing conceptions of the self.

This study aims to explore empathy in The Skriker by Caryl Churchill. Empathy plays a pivotal role in the play, showcasing a state of affairs that is the result of an absence of empathy between the characters. The importance of empathy is not limited to the state of affairs between characters, as it also plays an important role in the audience’s understanding of the play. By drawing on Martha C. Nussbaum’s theory of empathy and applying it to the play, this paper examines the distinct roles of empathy in the play. Through analyzing the absence or presence of empathy, the study points out the subtle ways the relationship and understanding between characters in the play take form and how, in turn, this would affect their actions. This paper contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of how literature can serve as a vehicle for exploring complex relational and interpersonal dynamics within specific societal contexts.