امید استاد

The current paper pursues two aims: to employ Classical Test Theory (CTT) to develop and refine a test, and to determine the impact of the age factor on L2 grammar among Iranian EFL learners, providing evidence for the claim that CTT best evaluates the consistency of measurements in age-related studies. The study examines the performance of adults or teenagers as pre- and post-puberty learners, in the grammar test devised through CTT, to conclude whether younger learners or older ones perform better on subject-verb agreement. Based on random sampling, twenty-three male participants, including 12 adults and 11 adolescents, upper-intermediate native speakers of Persian, took part in the study. They were tested on a 60-item test of grammar (on subject-verb agreement), which has been developed using the CTT model, as it fits small sample sizes and can be used for understanding complex issues (e.g., age-related issues). Other than devising a test on agreement using CTT as a model, the results revealed that post-puberty learners scored better than their younger counterparts, partly because they are cognitively more mature. However, age is not the one and only factor in second language learning, and other factors like individual differences, contextual factors, and methodological rigor should be taken into account. 

The incentive behind conducting the present study was initially ignited by the curiosity to examine the extent of Iranian EFL teachers’ familiarity with the concept of “critical literacy”. This qualitative contribution was carried out in two phases. In the first phase, an open questionnaire was developed and compiled after reviewing the literature, analysing existing questionnaires and gathering feedback from academics in the field. Qualitative data was then collected from 29 EFL teachers and analysed using an open questionnaire followed by an interview. The obtained data allowed the development of 23 questions for the interview part, which was accompanied by observing the online courses of all teachers by the researchers throughout the semester. It was concluded that the participants displayed very low levels of knowledge of Critical Literacy along with little, if any, application or incorporation of it. These findings may assist stakeholders in education, including second/foreign language (L2) policy makers, teacher educators, teacher recruitment institutes and material developers. They need to take appropriate action to enhance the critical literacy of L2 teachers before and during employment, thus promoting the implementation of this key concept in the pedagogical context of the process.