نمادها و نمادواره های ابداعی در الهی نامه عطار (مقاله علمی وزارت علوم)
درجه علمی: نشریه علمی (وزارت علوم)
آرشیو
چکیده
نماد مفهومی بسیار گسترده است که تعاریف متعددی در کتب مختلف از آن ارائه شده است و در نگاه کلی عبارت از هر علامت، اشاره، کلمه، ترکیب و عبارتی است که بر معنی و مفهومی ورای آن چه ظاهر آن می نماید، دلالت دارد. در دسته بندی نمادها یکی از اقسام نمادهایی که از آن نام برده شده، نمادهای ابداعی است که با عناوین دیگری چون: نمادهای تصادفی، اختصاصی، شخصی و خاص در کتب مختلف ذکر شده است؛ نمادهایی که ساخته ذهن خود شاعر است و تا قبل از او کسی آن مفهوم را در آن معنای نمادین به کار نبرده است، از این رو هر یک از شاعران نمادپرداز، در تصاویر نمادین خود نمادهای ابداعی دارند که پیش از آن ها کسی آن را به کار نگرفته است. عطار هم از جمله شاعرانی است که در اشعار خود موفق به تدوین یک نظام منسجم نمادین شده؛ چرا که «منطق الطیر»، «مصیبت نامه» و «الهی نامه»، منظومه هایی رمزی و نمادین هستند و دیگر آثار وی هم عرفانی اند و آثار عرفانی پیوندی نزدیک با رمز و نماد دارند. او در نمادپردازی ابداعاتی دارد که در این پژوهش برآنیم تا با استفاده از روش توصیفی- تحلیلی و با استفاده از منابع و اسناد مکتوب و الکترونیکی این نمادها را در الهی نامه عطار استخراج کنیم و از این رهگذر هم شیوه های نمادپردازی عطار را به دست آوریم و هم فراگیرشدن یا نشدن این نمادها بعد از عطار بر ما مکشوف گردد. نتایج حاصل از تحقیق نشان می دهد که عطار اغلب نمادهایش را در قالب اضافه های تشبیهی به کار می برد، همچنین براساس جست وجوهای صورت گرفته، ظاهراً برخی از نمادهای ابداعی عطار را تا کنون کسی جز او به کار نبرده؛ اما برخی دیگر به صورت نمادهای فراگیری در شعر شاعران پس از عطار درآمده است. نمادهای ابداعی عطار در سه شکل: اضافه های تشبیهی، استعارات و حکایات تمثیلی بیان شده که اغلب موارد استخراج شده، به صورت اضافه های تشبیهی است.Innovative Symbols and Pseudo-Symbols in Attar’s Elahi-Nameh
A symbol is a broad concept with numerous definitions across various texts. Generally, it refers to any sign, gesture, word, or phrase that implies a meaning beyond its literal appearance. Within the category of symbols, one notable type is the “innovative symbol,” which is also termed random, exclusive, personal, or special in different sources. These are symbols created by a poet’s own mind, where a concept is used in a symbolic sense for the first time. Consequently, most symbolic poets possess innovative symbols within their work that are entirely original. Attar is one poet who successfully developed a coherent symbolic system in his poetry, establishing a unique style among mystic poets. His work features original contributions to symbology. This research aims to extract these innovative symbols from the Elahi-Nameh using a descriptive-analytical method and by consulting written and electronic sources. This process will reveal Attar’s methods of symbolization and indicate whether these symbols were adopted by later poets. The results show that Attar most frequently presents his innovative symbols in the form of similes. Furthermore, while some of his innovative symbols remain unique to his work, others were indeed adopted by subsequent poets. These innovative symbols are expressed in three primary forms: allegorical additions, metaphors, and allegorical stories, with most of the extracted instances being allegorical additions. Introduction A symbol, broadly defined, is the representation of an abstract reality, feeling, or idea imperceptible to the senses through an image or object (Satari, 1395: 7). Given the abstract nature of mystical experiences, mysticism is deeply intertwined with symbols and symbolic language. This coded language is the most suitable medium for expressing mystical experience and, more generally, for depicting any spiritual, metaphysical, or transcendental reality; indeed, it is nearly impossible to convey religious and mystical experiences without resorting to such a language (ibid.: 57). Farid al-Din Attar Neishaburi (540-618 AH) is among the foremost mystical poets who approached elements of ancient culture and Iranian national mythology from a symbolic perspective (Shafi'i Kadkani, 1392: 198). He is a mystic poet who paid particular attention to symbols (Fotohi, 2017: 229). Various classifications of symbols exist in the literature, most of them based on thematic concepts—such as animal symbols, plant symbols, colors, and mystical symbols. Among these, a distinct category consists of symbols created by the poet's own mind. Referred to in most symbology books as "inventive symbols," Eric Fromm terms them "random codes." Unlike conventional symbols, these are individualistic, with no one else involved in their creation. Given the inherent complexity and breadth of the symbol, it has been defined in numerous ways. Despite these differing definitions, the discourse can be seen as falling into two general approaches. One group of scholars situates the symbol within the realm of "imagery," thereby focusing on its similarities to and differences from other imaginative forms. Consequently, some consider the symbol a type of trope, while others, noting its overlap with metaphor, describe it as "metaphorical" (Shamisa, 2014: 219). Another group, including Jalal Satari, Alireza Fuladi, and Mahmoud Fotuhi, regard it as an image-making element. In this view, the symbol is not merely a type of imagery but a distinct mode of its application. They argue that any imaginative image can be considered a symbol, provided it possesses two characteristics: abundance and phenomenality (Fuladi, 2019: 430). Research background Numerous studies have been conducted on Attar, his works, and his thought. Several articles and theses have addressed his use of symbolism. For instance, Soghra Rahmatinejad completed her master's thesis, entitled "Symbolization in Attar's Masnavies," under the supervision of Rahim Kooshesh at Urmia University in 2011. This work examines symbolic historical and mythological characters, as well as animal, plant, inanimate, and elemental symbols, including colors and celestial bodies, across these narratives. In 2017, Seyyed Hasan Seyed Torabi published an article titled "Mystic Function of the Symbol of Color in the Masnavis of Attar Neishaburi" in Issue 57 of the Islamic Mysticism Magazine of Zanjan Azad University. This article deciphers the symbolic meanings of the colors Attar employed to interpret esoteric concepts. Furthermore, the article "Animal Symbols of the Soul in Mystical Texts Based on the Works of Sanaee, Attar and Molavi" (2013) by Amin Rahimi, Seyedeh Zahra Moosavi, and Mehrdad Morwarid was published in Issue 62 of Allameh Tabataba'i University's Literary Text Research Magazine. The authors argue that in mystical literature, the soul is often embodied, with its representation varying according to the specific trait the writer or poet wishes to emphasize. They identify the animals these poets used as symbols for the soul and analyze the reasoning behind each metaphorical choice. Another relevant study is Maryam Mahmoudi's article, "Review and Analysis of the Symbol of the Sea in Attar's Works" (2010), published in Issue 8 of the Jihad University Research Journal of Persian Language and Literature. After a detailed examination, Mahmoudi concludes that in Attar's works, the sea symbolizes the Divine Almighty, creatures are drops from this sea, and the only path for a drop to return to the sea is through annihilation ( fana ). The result of this return is unity with the sea—that is, attaining monotheism and becoming one with God. However, despite this body of research, and to the best of the author's knowledge, no specific study has yet been dedicated to investigating Attar's innovative symbols within the Elahi-Nameh . Research Method This research employs a descriptive-analytical methodology, utilizing both written and electronic sources and documents. Result Like other great poets and mystics, Attar demonstrated innovation in his symbology, creating symbolic images that either became models for subsequent poets or have remained unique to his work. His innovative symbols are expressed in three primary forms: allegorical additions, metaphors, and allegorical stories, with the majority of identified instances falling into the category of allegorical additions. Within this category, Attar sometimes employs a specific, well-known name—one familiar to everyone due to its unique characteristics—to create a symbolic meaning and anchor it in the audience's mind. Thus, he creates and expresses symbols such as Rakhsh-e Dolat (Steed of Fortune), Rakhsh-e Gardoon (Steed of the Heavens), Afrasiab-e Nafs (Afrasiab of the Soul), and Boragh-e Eshgh (Buraq of Love), revealing their symbolic meaning through the allegorical addition that follows the name. Attar's use of metaphor for symbolization is relatively infrequent. In his allegorical stories, which are few in number, he often employs a symbolic word in a sense contrary to its common perception. For example, in the story of Bahlul from the tenth treatise of the Elahi-Nameh , the word "dragon" initially evokes the "Commanding Self" ( Nafs-e Ammara ), which devours a person's life in its fiery maw. However, Attar uses it in a conflicting sense, symbolizing the "Blaming Self" ( Nafs-e Lawwama ), which represents a level of the seeker's control over their ego. Some of Attar's creative symbols in the Elahi-Nameh became frequent motifs in the works of later poets, such as Boragh-e Eshgh , Cherk-e Sherk (Trench of Polytheism), Rakhsh-e Dolat , and Rashk-e Gardoon (Envy of the Heavens). However, the majority of these symbols have remained Attar's exclusive intellectual property; according to our research, they have not been adopted by any other poet. Only a very small number of these innovative symbols have been found in the works of later poets. Introduction A symbol, broadly defined, is the representation of an abstract reality, feeling, or idea imperceptible to the senses through an image or object (Satari, 1395: 7). Given the abstract nature of mystical experiences, mysticism is deeply intertwined with symbols and symbolic language. This coded language is the most suitable medium for expressing mystical experience and, more generally, for depicting any spiritual, metaphysical, or transcendental reality; indeed, it is nearly impossible to convey religious and mystical experiences without resorting to such a language (ibid.: 57). Farid al-Din Attar Neishaburi (540-618 AH) is among the foremost mystical poets who approached elements of ancient culture and Iranian national mythology from a symbolic perspective (Shafi'i Kadkani, 1392: 198). He is a mystic poet who paid particular attention to symbols (Fotohi, 2017: 229). Various classifications of symbols exist in the literature, most of them based on thematic concepts—such as animal symbols, plant symbols, colors, and mystical symbols. Among these, a distinct category consists of symbols created by the poet's own mind. Referred to in most symbology books as "inventive symbols," Eric Fromm terms them "random codes." Unlike conventional symbols, these are individualistic, with no one else involved in their creation. Given the inherent complexity and breadth of the symbol, it has been defined in numerous ways. Despite these differing definitions, the discourse can be seen as falling into two general approaches. One group of scholars situates the symbol within the realm of "imagery," thereby focusing on its similarities to and differences from other imaginative forms. Consequently, some consider the symbol a type of trope, while others, noting its overlap with metaphor, describe it as "metaphorical" (Shamisa, 2014: 219). Another group, including Jalal Satari, Alireza Fuladi, and Mahmoud Fotuhi, regard it as an image-making element. In this view, the symbol is not merely a type of imagery but a distinct mode of its application. They argue that any imaginative image can be considered a symbol, provided it possesses two characteristics: abundance and phenomenality (Fuladi, 2019: 430). Research background Numerous studies have been conducted on Attar, his works, and his thought. Several articles and theses have addressed his use of symbolism. For instance, Soghra Rahmatinejad completed her master's thesis, entitled "Symbolization in Attar's Masnavies," under the supervision of Rahim Kooshesh at Urmia University in 2011. This work examines symbolic historical and mythological characters, as well as animal, plant, inanimate, and elemental symbols, including colors and celestial bodies, across these narratives. In 2017, Seyyed Hasan Seyed Torabi published an article titled "Mystic Function of the Symbol of Color in the Masnavis of Attar Neishaburi" in Issue 57 of the Islamic Mysticism Magazine of Zanjan Azad University. This article deciphers the symbolic meanings of the colors Attar employed to interpret esoteric concepts. Furthermore, the article "Animal Symbols of the Soul in Mystical Texts Based on the Works of Sanaee, Attar and Molavi" (2013) by Amin Rahimi, Seyedeh Zahra Moosavi, and Mehrdad Morwarid was published in Issue 62 of Allameh Tabataba'i University's Literary Text Research Magazine. The authors argue that in mystical literature, the soul is often embodied, with its representation varying according to the specific trait the writer or poet wishes to emphasize. They identify the animals these poets used as symbols for the soul and analyze the reasoning behind each metaphorical choice. Another relevant study is Maryam Mahmoudi's article, "Review and Analysis of the Symbol of the Sea in Attar's Works" (2010), published in Issue 8 of the Jihad University Research Journal of Persian Language and Literature. After a detailed examination, Mahmoudi concludes that in Attar's works, the sea symbolizes the Divine Almighty, creatures are drops from this sea, and the only path for a drop to return to the sea is through annihilation ( fana ). The result of this return is unity with the sea—that is, attaining monotheism and becoming one with God. However, despite this body of research, and to the best of the author's knowledge, no specific study has yet been dedicated to investigating Attar's innovative symbols within the Elahi-Nameh . Research Method This research employs a descriptive-analytical methodology, utilizing both written and electronic sources and documents. Result Like other great poets and mystics, Attar demonstrated innovation in his symbology, creating symbolic images that either became models for subsequent poets or have remained unique to his work. His innovative symbols are expressed in three primary forms: allegorical additions, metaphors, and allegorical stories, with the majority of identified instances falling into the category of allegorical additions. Within this category, Attar sometimes employs a specific, well-known name—one familiar to everyone due to its unique characteristics—to create a symbolic meaning and anchor it in the audience's mind. Thus, he creates and expresses symbols such as Rakhsh-e Dolat (Steed of Fortune), Rakhsh-e Gardoon (Steed of the Heavens), Afrasiab-e Nafs (Afrasiab of the Soul), and Boragh-e Eshgh (Buraq of Love), revealing their symbolic meaning through the allegorical addition that follows the name. Attar's use of metaphor for symbolization is relatively infrequent. In his allegorical stories, which are few in number, he often employs a symbolic word in a sense contrary to its common perception. For example, in the story of Bahlul from the tenth treatise of the Elahi-Nameh , the word "dragon" initially evokes the "Commanding Self" ( Nafs-e Ammara ), which devours a person's life in its fiery maw. However, Attar uses it in a conflicting sense, symbolizing the "Blaming Self" ( Nafs-e Lawwama ), which represents a level of the seeker's control over their ego. Some of Attar's creative symbols in the Elahi-Nameh became frequent motifs in the works of later poets, such as Boragh-e Eshgh , Cherk-e Sherk (Trench of Polytheism), Rakhsh-e Dolat , and Rashk-e Gardoon (Envy of the Heavens). However, the majority of these symbols have remained Attar's exclusive intellectual property; according to our research, they have not been adopted by any other poet. Only a very small number of these innovative symbols have been found in the works of later poets. Introduction A symbol, broadly defined, is the representation of an abstract reality, feeling, or idea imperceptible to the senses through an image or object (Satari, 1395: 7). Given the abstract nature of mystical experiences, mysticism is deeply intertwined with symbols and symbolic language. This coded language is the most suitable medium for expressing mystical experience and, more generally, for depicting any spiritual, metaphysical, or transcendental reality; indeed, it is nearly impossible to convey religious and mystical experiences without resorting to such a language (ibid.: 57). Farid al-Din Attar Neishaburi (540-618 AH) is among the foremost mystical poets who approached elements of ancient culture and Iranian national mythology from a symbolic perspective (Shafi'i Kadkani, 1392: 198). He is a mystic poet who paid particular attention to symbols (Fotohi, 2017: 229). Various classifications of symbols exist in the literature, most of them based on thematic concepts—such as animal symbols, plant symbols, colors, and mystical symbols. Among these, a distinct category consists of symbols created by the poet's own mind. Referred to in most symbology books as "inventive symbols," Eric Fromm terms them "random codes." Unlike conventional symbols, these are individualistic, with no one else involved in their creation. Given the inherent complexity and breadth of the symbol, it has been defined in numerous ways. Despite these differing definitions, the discourse can be seen as falling into two general approaches. One group of scholars situates the symbol within the realm of "imagery," thereby focusing on its similarities to and differences from other imaginative forms. Consequently, some consider the symbol a type of trope, while others, noting its overlap with metaphor, describe it as "metaphorical" (Shamisa, 2014: 219). Another group, including Jalal Satari, Alireza Fuladi, and Mahmoud Fotuhi, regard it as an image-making element. In this view, the symbol is not merely a type of imagery but a distinct mode of its application. They argue that any imaginative image can be considered a symbol, provided it possesses two characteristics: abundance and phenomenality (Fuladi, 2019: 430). Research background Numerous studies have been conducted on Attar, his works, and his thought. Several articles and theses have addressed his use of symbolism. For instance, Soghra Rahmatinejad completed her master's thesis, entitled "Symbolization in Attar's Masnavies," under the supervision of Rahim Kooshesh at Urmia University in 2011. This work examines symbolic historical and mythological characters, as well as animal, plant, inanimate, and elemental symbols, including colors and celestial bodies, across these narratives. In 2017, Seyyed Hasan Seyed Torabi published an article titled "Mystic Function of the Symbol of Color in the Masnavis of Attar Neishaburi" in Issue 57 of the Islamic Mysticism Magazine of Zanjan Azad University. This article deciphers the symbolic meanings of the colors Attar employed to interpret esoteric concepts. Furthermore, the article "Animal Symbols of the Soul in Mystical Texts Based on the Works of Sanaee, Attar and Molavi" (2013) by Amin Rahimi, Seyedeh Zahra Moosavi, and Mehrdad Morwarid was published in Issue 62 of Allameh Tabataba'i University's Literary Text Research Magazine. The authors argue that in mystical literature, the soul is often embodied, with its representation varying according to the specific trait the writer or poet wishes to emphasize. They identify the animals these poets used as symbols for the soul and analyze the reasoning behind each metaphorical choice. Another relevant study is Maryam Mahmoudi's article, "Review and Analysis of the Symbol of the Sea in Attar's Works" (2010), published in Issue 8 of the Jihad University Research Journal of Persian Language and Literature. After a detailed examination, Mahmoudi concludes that in Attar's works, the sea symbolizes the Divine Almighty, creatures are drops from this sea, and the only path for a drop to return to the sea is through annihilation ( fana ). The result of this return is unity with the sea—that is, attaining monotheism and becoming one with God. However, despite this body of research, and to the best of the author's knowledge, no specific study has yet been dedicated to investigating Attar's innovative symbols within the Elahi-Nameh . Research Method This research employs a descriptive-analytical methodology, utilizing both written and electronic sources and documents. Result Like other great poets and mystics, Attar demonstrated innovation in his symbology, creating symbolic images that either became models for subsequent poets or have remained unique to his work. His innovative symbols are expressed in three primary forms: allegorical additions, metaphors, and allegorical stories, with the majority of identified instances falling into the category of allegorical additions. Within this category, Attar sometimes employs a specific, well-known name—one familiar to everyone due to its unique characteristics—to create a symbolic meaning and anchor it in the audience's mind. Thus, he creates and expresses symbols such as Rakhsh-e Dolat (Steed of Fortune), Rakhsh-e Gardoon (Steed of the Heavens), Afrasiab-e Nafs (Afrasiab of the Soul), and Boragh-e Eshgh (Buraq of Love), revealing their symbolic meaning through the allegorical addition that follows the name. Attar's use of metaphor for symbolization is relatively infrequent. In his allegorical stories, which are few in number, he often employs a symbolic word in a sense contrary to its common perception. For example, in the story of Bahlul from the tenth treatise of the Elahi-Nameh , the word "dragon" initially evokes the "Commanding Self" ( Nafs-e Ammara ), which devours a person's life in its fiery maw. However, Attar uses it in a conflicting sense, symbolizing the "Blaming Self" ( Nafs-e Lawwama ), which represents a level of the seeker's control over their ego. Some of Attar's creative symbols in the Elahi-Nameh became frequent motifs in the works of later poets, such as Boragh-e Eshgh , Cherk-e Sherk (Trench of Polytheism), Rakhsh-e Dolat , and Rashk-e Gardoon (Envy of the Heavens). However, the majority of these symbols have remained Attar's exclusive intellectual property; according to our research, they have not been adopted by any other poet. Only a very small number of these innovative symbols have been found in the works of later poets. Introduction A symbol, broadly defined, is the representation of an abstract reality, feeling, or idea imperceptible to the senses through an image or object (Satari, 1395: 7). Given the abstract nature of mystical experiences, mysticism is deeply intertwined with symbols and symbolic language. This coded language is the most suitable medium for expressing mystical experience and, more generally, for depicting any spiritual, metaphysical, or transcendental reality; indeed, it is nearly impossible to convey religious and mystical experiences without resorting to such a language (ibid.: 57). Farid al-Din Attar Neishaburi (540-618 AH) is among the foremost mystical poets who approached elements of ancient culture and Iranian national mythology from a symbolic perspective (Shafi'i Kadkani, 1392: 198). He is a mystic poet who paid particular attention to symbols (Fotohi, 2017: 229). Various classifications of symbols exist in the literature, most of them based on thematic concepts—such as animal symbols, plant symbols, colors, and mystical symbols. Among these, a distinct category consists of symbols created by the poet's own mind. Referred to in most symbology books as "inventive symbols," Eric Fromm terms them "random codes." Unlike conventional symbols, these are individualistic, with no one else involved in their creation. Given the inherent complexity and breadth of the symbol, it has been defined in numerous ways. Despite these differing definitions, the discourse can be seen as falling into two general approaches. One group of scholars situates the symbol within the realm of "imagery," thereby focusing on its similarities to and differences from other imaginative forms. Consequently, some consider the symbol a type of trope, while others, noting its overlap with metaphor, describe it as "metaphorical" (Shamisa, 2014: 219). Another group, including Jalal Satari, Alireza Fuladi, and Mahmoud Fotuhi, regard it as an image-making element. In this view, the symbol is not merely a type of imagery but a distinct mode of its application. They argue that any imaginative image can be considered a symbol, provided it possesses two characteristics: abundance and phenomenality (Fuladi, 2019: 430). Research background Numerous studies have been conducted on Attar, his works, and his thought. Several articles and theses have addressed his use of symbolism. For instance, Soghra Rahmatinejad completed her master's thesis, entitled "Symbolization in Attar's Masnavies," under the supervision of Rahim Kooshesh at Urmia University in 2011. This work examines symbolic historical and mythological characters, as well as animal, plant, inanimate, and elemental symbols, including colors and celestial bodies, across these narratives. In 2017, Seyyed Hasan Seyed Torabi published an article titled "Mystic Function of the Symbol of Color in the Masnavis of Attar Neishaburi" in Issue 57 of the Islamic Mysticism Magazine of Zanjan Azad University. This article deciphers the symbolic meanings of the colors Attar employed to interpret esoteric concepts. Furthermore, the article "Animal Symbols of the Soul in Mystical Texts Based on the Works of Sanaee, Attar and Molavi" (2013) by Amin Rahimi, Seyedeh Zahra Moosavi, and Mehrdad Morwarid was published in Issue 62 of Allameh Tabataba'i University's Literary Text Research Magazine. The authors argue that in mystical literature, the soul is often embodied, with its representation varying according to the specific trait the writer or poet wishes to emphasize. They identify the animals these poets used as symbols for the soul and analyze the reasoning behind each metaphorical choice. Another relevant study is Maryam Mahmoudi's article, "Review and Analysis of the Symbol of the Sea in Attar's Works" (2010), published in Issue 8 of the Jihad University Research Journal of Persian Language and Literature. After a detailed examination, Mahmoudi concludes that in Attar's works, the sea symbolizes the Divine Almighty, creatures are drops from this sea, and the only path for a drop to return to the sea is through annihilation ( fana ). The result of this return is unity with the sea—that is, attaining monotheism and becoming one with God. However, despite this body of research, and to the best of the author's knowledge, no specific study has yet been dedicated to investigating Attar's innovative symbols within the Elahi-Nameh . Research Method This research employs a descriptive-analytical methodology, utilizing both written and electronic sources and documents. Result Like other great poets and mystics, Attar demonstrated innovation in his symbology, creating symbolic images that either became models for subsequent poets or have remained unique to his work. His innovative symbols are expressed in three primary forms: allegorical additions, metaphors, and allegorical stories, with the majority of identified instances falling into the category of allegorical additions. Within this category, Attar sometimes employs a specific, well-known name—one familiar to everyone due to its unique characteristics—to create a symbolic meaning and anchor it in the audience's mind. Thus, he creates and expresses symbols such as Rakhsh-e Dolat (Steed of Fortune), Rakhsh-e Gardoon (Steed of the Heavens), Afrasiab-e Nafs (Afrasiab of the Soul), and Boragh-e Eshgh (Buraq of Love), revealing their symbolic meaning through the allegorical addition that follows the name. Attar's use of metaphor for symbolization is relatively infrequent. In his allegorical stories, which are few in number, he often employs a symbolic word in a sense contrary to its common perception. For example, in the story of Bahlul from the tenth treatise of the Elahi-Nameh , the word "dragon" initially evokes the "Commanding Self" ( Nafs-e Ammara ), which devours a person's life in its fiery maw. However, Attar uses it in a conflicting sense, symbolizing the "Blaming Self" ( Nafs-e Lawwama ), which represents a level of the seeker's control over their ego. Some of Attar's creative symbols in the Elahi-Nameh became frequent motifs in the works of later poets, such as Boragh-e Eshgh , Cherk-e Sherk (Trench of Polytheism), Rakhsh-e Dolat , and Rashk-e Gardoon (Envy of the Heavens). However, the majority of these symbols have remained Attar's exclusive intellectual property; according to our research, they have not been adopted by any other poet. Only a very small number of these innovative symbols have been found in the works of later poets.
تبلیغات
